|
|
Alive and well
欣欣向荣
Judaism is enjoying an unexpected revival, says David Landau. But there are deep religious and political divisions, mostly centred on Israel
大卫·兰道（David Landau）[注1]指出犹太教正在经历一段意料之外的复兴期。但是巨大的宗教和政治分歧依然存在，而且这些分歧大多集中在以色列身上。
Jul 28th 2012 | from the print edition
JUDAISM IS FLOURISHING, both in Israel, where 43% of the world’s Jews now live, and throughout the Jewish diaspora. The Jews as a nation are flourishing too. Israelis, for all their problems, are the 14th-happiest people in the world, happier than the British or the French, according to a recent global happiness report commissioned by the UN. In the diaspora Jewish life has never been so free, so prosperous, so unthreatened.
今时今日犹太教不仅在世界43%犹太人居住的以色列欣欣向荣，它在整个犹太侨民社区内都呈现出一片繁荣景象。与此同时，整个犹太民族也在蓬勃发展。最近联合国主持的一份全球幸福研究显示虽然以色列面对的问题不少，但以色列人的幸福程度在全世界可以排到第14位，领先于英国人或是法国人。而海外的犹太侨民在历史上从未生活得像现在这么自由，这么繁荣，这么安定。
In America an observant Jew, Senator Joseph Lieberman, ran for vice-president in 2000. With Al Gore as candidate for president, he nearly made it. His Jewish faith was no drawback, he says; rather, it appealed to many Christian voters who take their own religion seriously. Mr Lieberman and his wife, Hadassah, “were dreaming of a large suka” (a rustic hut covered with branches in which Jews eat and entertain during the Sukot harvest festival) in the grounds of the vice-president’s residence. “We felt we could be ourselves.” Had he had gone on to run for the White House, as he hoped, “I’d have been observant there, too.”
在美国一位恪守教规的犹太教徒——参议员约瑟夫·利伯曼（Joseph Lieberman）还曾在2000年竞选过副总统。和总统竞选人阿尔·戈尔（Al Gore）搭档，他差一点就成功当上了副总统。他觉得宗教信仰并没有拖自己的后腿，相反，身为一个犹太教徒这一点却为他吸引了很多虔诚基督教徒的选票。利伯曼和他的妻子哈达莎（Hadassah）当时还梦想在副总统官邸的院子里“建造一座巨大的苏卡”（一座盖有树枝的棚屋，犹太人在住棚节[注2]时会在棚内进食欢庆）。据他们所说：“我们觉得完全可以做自己。”如果利伯曼和他自己希望的那样，后来又竞选总统的话，他说：“我还是会以虔诚信徒的身份竞选。”
“Jewish is cool in America,” says J.J. Goldberg, a writer. “Celebrities used to change their names to hide their Jewish identity. Now they talk on television about how they try to instil Jewish identity into their half-Jewish children. Take [the actress] Gwyneth Paltrow. Her father is a descendant of rabbis; her mother is a Protestant from middle America. She writes in her food blog about her favourite kosher recipes for the seder [the family prayer-dinner celebrating the Passover spring festival]. Seders are popular with non-Jewish people. Bar-mitzva [the coming-of-age-ceremony] has become stylish, too. Kids see it on television; they see their friends having it—and they want it as well.”
“如今身为犹太人在美国其实挺拉风的”，作家乔纳森·杰里米·戈登伯格（J.J. Goldberg）说，“过去名人会改名来隐藏自己的犹太身份。现在他们在电视上公开谈论想要对自己半犹太的孩子灌输犹太观念。拿女演员格温妮斯·帕特洛（Gwyneth Paltrow）为例。她的父亲祖上是一位拉比[注3]，而她的母亲来自美国中部的一位基督教新教徒。帕特洛在自己的美食博客里会写春天犹太人逾越节家宴[注4]上他最喜爱的犹太美食食谱。逾越节家宴在非犹太人中也很受欢迎。成人礼[注5]现在也很流行。孩子们在电视节目中看到成人礼，他们看到自己的朋友举行成人礼，因此他们自己也想要举办。”
In the smaller diaspora communities, too, Jews are prospering, though there is nowhere with quite that same sense of complete, seamless belonging as in America. In Russia and Ukraine, where Judaism and Zionism were repressed in communist times, Jews are prominent in business. Jewish philanthropy is rebuilding community life for those who opted to stay rather than emigrate to Israel or the West.
一些相对较小的犹太侨民社区虽然在提供一种完全融合的归属感上还不及美国，却也在繁荣发展。在俄罗斯和乌克兰，共产主义时期犹太教和犹太复国主义[注6]一直受到压制，而现在这些地方的犹太人在商界干得很不错。犹太慈善家正在出资帮助那些选择不移民去以色列或西方国家而留在本地的犹太人重建他们的犹太社区。
Israel and the Jewish diaspora, moreover, are in strong and loyal alignment. Diaspora Jews, broadly speaking, love and cherish Israel. They support it against its enemies, real and perceived, they back its government and they resent its critics.
此外，犹太侨民和以色列之间存在着非常牢固坚定的同盟关系。犹太侨民基本上都热爱珍视以色列。他们支持以色列对抗各种敌人，无论这种敌意是真实的还仅仅是他们的感觉。他们也支持以色列政府，并憎恨批评以色列的人士。
None of this could have been predicted just a few decades ago. Hitler had wiped out one-third of the Jewish people. A thousand years of Jewish civilisation in central and eastern Europe had been swept away. Fortunately for Jewish survival, the Nazis’ “final solution” had been preceded by a flurry of pogroms across the then-tsarist empire that started 60 years earlier, sending waves of mass Jewish emigration westward. By the time Hitler struck, some 6m Jews were safe in North and South America and in Britain, with 3m more living in the Soviet Union.
仅仅几十年前所有这些都还是难以想象的。希特勒屠杀了三分之一的犹太人。在中欧和东欧有一千年历史的犹太文化就这样被抹杀。对于犹太文化的保存来说很幸运的一件事是：早在纳粹制订出“最终方案”[注7]60年前，当时的沙皇俄国对犹太人进行了一系列的大规模迫害，导致大批犹太人向西移民。等到希特勒出手时，已有大约6百万犹太人居住在南美、北美和英国，此外还有3百万在苏联境内，这些犹太人都得而逃过一劫。
Traditional religious learning and observance had been on the defensive in central and eastern Europe for 150 years, since political emancipation in parts of the region opened the gates of ghettoes and tradition in the shtetls (small Jewish communities) was shaken up. Now the old life was annihilated, along with much of modern, liberal Jewish culture. The Sephardic communities of north Africa and the Levant, long a minority within Jewry, gained new numerical significance. Together with the pitifully few survivors of Nazi-occupied Europe, they became the core population of the new state of Israel.
在150年的时间里，中欧和东欧的犹太人在进行传统的宗教学习和教规遵守这些活动时一直小心翼翼，草木皆兵。在政治解放后一部份这些地区里人们打开了隔离区的大门，改革了犹太村的传统。当时古老的生活方式，连同很多现代的自由犹太文化都已完全消失。北非和黎凡特地区的塞法迪犹太人[注8]社区在历史上本只占犹太人的一小部分，二战后他们在犹太人中占得比例变得可观。加上纳粹占领的欧洲地区少得可怜的犹太幸存者，他们一起形成了建立以色列国的核心人口。
Ben-Gurion’s error
本·古里安的错估
Its founding fathers, socialist-Zionists in the main, thought that the vestiges of the old religion would soon disappear. David Ben-Gurion, Israel’s first prime minister, held that the 2,000 years of diasporic Judaism were a deviation from the true fulfilment of the Jewish ethos. The Talmud (Judaism’s ancient body of law and lore) was too casuistic, he felt; the new state must hark back to the Bible. But he agreed to exempt a few hundred Talmud students from army service, confident they were a dying breed.
以色列的国父大卫·本·古里安（David Ben-Gurion）基本信奉社会主义和犹太复国主义。他认为古老宗教的残骸很快就会消失殆尽。身为以色列的第一任总理，他相信历经2000年流亡的犹太教偏离了犹太民族精神的真正实践。他觉得《犹太法典》（记录犹太教法律和传说的古典）过于诡辩。新国家必须要回归到《圣经》[注9]上。但是他同意让几百名《犹太法典》学生免服兵役，相信这些宗教传统分子过不了多久就会绝迹。
Before the Holocaust, Zionism, the movement for Jewish independence in Palestine, had to struggle for Jewish popular support. Now it was vindicated, at least in its own eyes. But some Jews, especially in America, were still not convinced. Israel, fighting for its survival, flooded by destitute immigrants, looked precarious to them. In America assimilation was the watchword. Attenuated forms of religious practice that originated in 19th century Germany were embraced by the upwardly mobile children and grandchildren of the immigrant generation.
在犹太大屠杀之前，犹太复国主义——即在巴勒斯坦争取犹太独立国家的运动并没有获得太多犹太人支持。而大屠杀让犹太复国主义得到了平反，至少在复国主义分子眼内是如此。但是有些犹太人，尤其是美国犹太人对该主义依然有所怀疑。当时的以色列为了生存而身陷战火，国内杂糅着大量穷困潦倒的移民，在美国犹太人的眼里岌岌可危。而在美国当时犹太社区的核心思想是同化。最初那代犹太移民的子孙们逐步跻身社会上层，他们开始接受起源于19世纪德国的一些经过简化的宗教习俗。
American Jews’ standoffishness towards their Jewish nationhood shifted sharply after the six-day war in 1967. The collective experience of fear, and then relief and jubilation, produced an outpouring of solidarity with the beleaguered Jewish state. Mixed in with these emotions was a sense of unease, even guilt, over the ineffectiveness of American Jewish lobbying during the Holocaust to get President Roosevelt to rescue Jews.
美国犹太人对犹太国的冷淡态度在1967年的六日战争[注10]之后发生了巨大变化。所有犹太人共同感受到战争的恐惧以及之后的宽慰及狂喜。大量美国犹太人表达了自己和身陷困境的犹太国风雨同舟的情谊。混杂在这些感情里还有一点不安，甚至可以说是负罪感，因为大屠杀时美国犹太人游说罗斯福总统拯救犹太人的努力并不成功。
Sociologists say that Israel—and fundraising and lobbying on its behalf—became American Jewry’s “secular religion”. A vocal grassroots campaign to free emigration for Soviet Jewry also attracted wide support, especially among younger Jews.
社会学家认为以色列，以及为以色列游说和集资，已经成为美国犹太人的一种“世俗宗教”。当时有一个直言不讳的草根组织呼吁放宽对苏联犹太人的移民限制。该活动获得了巨大的支持，较年轻的犹太人对其支持尤为显著。
By the turn of the 21st century, moreover, post-modernism was cocking an unexpected snook both at dogmatic Israeli Godlessness and at diaspora assimilationism. “Post-modernism has been kind to all religions,” says Moshe Halbertal, a philosopher living in Jerusalem. “Reason was dethroned; there’s no large narrative out there any more.” Hyphenated ethnicities and identities encourage people to enjoy and display their diversities instead of keeping them out of sight.
此外，等到20世纪末21世纪初，后现代主义[注11]兴起。这种新思想令人意外地对教条式的以色列世俗化及侨民与所在国同化这两个趋势表示了不屑。居住在耶路撒冷的哲学家莫西·哈尔伯塔尔（Moshe Halbertal）说：“后现代主义对所有的宗教都很和蔼。理性不再称王，不再存在任何长篇大论。”种族和国籍的称呼被联系起来，新思想鼓励人们不要把互相之间的多元性隐藏起来，而是要尽情享受并展示它们。
Many diaspora Jews today still drift out of Judaism or out of Jewishness, or choose to leave. But many others are consciously deciding to stay in, choosing one of myriad new ways to express their commitment. Exactly what defines Jewishness remains a matter of much debate. This special report will concentrate on those who formally identify with the faith (see table for the main denominations), but in Israel even the non-religious are influenced by Jewish culture and mores.
今天，许多犹太侨民依然会主动或被动地远离犹太教或是犹太习俗。但是也有许多犹太人会主动选择留在犹太文化内，从五花八门的新方法中选择一种来表达自己的信仰。到底什么样的人可以被看作是犹太人这个问题直到现在依然存在大量争议。本专题报告的讨论会集中在那些公开表示自己信仰犹太教（主要犹太教教派见表）的人士身上，但是在以色列即使那些非信徒还是会受到犹太文化和风俗的影响。
见文末表译
Jewish Orthodoxy has come surging back. Early marriages and high birth rates have produced a demographic explosion among the ultra-Orthodox haredim (God-fearers). This has pumped up their numbers, compensating for the steady outflow from active Judaism caused by assimilation. The overall total of Jews worldwide is somewhat higher than it was 40 years ago (see chart above). By conservative estimates, one in ten Jews is now haredi. The “modern-Orthodox” account for another 10%.
犹太教正统派正在经历复兴期。早婚和高生育率引发了超正统派的哈勒丁（意为“惧神者”）信徒的人口爆炸。他们人口的大幅增加弥补了各国同化所造成的皈信犹太教人口稳定流失。全世界犹太人总数现在已比40年前略高（见上图）。根据保守估计，现在10个犹太人中就有1个是哈勒丁信徒。此外所谓的“现代正统派”另占了10%。
Many Israelis like to think of themselves as “traditional”. But even the avowedly secular live Jewish lives, and indeed religious lives, in many subliminal ways; and Israel increasingly radiates its national, cultural and religious Jewishness into the diaspora communities.
许多以色列人觉得自己是“传统犹太人”。但是即使那些坚称自己不信奉犹太教的以色列人生活的很多方面都受到犹太生活，以及宗教生活潜移默化的影响。而且以色列还越来越经常地向侨民社区传达其民族、文化和宗教方面的犹太特质。
Following the collapse of the peace process with the Palestinians in 2000 and the violent intifada (uprising) that followed, Israeli political attitudes have palpably hardened. In theory, all Israeli mainstream parties are committed to a “two-state solution”; in practice, the growing modern-Orthodox settler movement in the West Bank spearheads a government policy of occupation without end. To sustain and justify that policy, a stridently nationalistic Zeitgeist is evolving. In the absence of progress towards peace, that may be inevitable. Perhaps it is inevitable, too, that it is winning the soul of diaspora Jewry.
在2000年以色列同巴勒斯坦人的和平进程瓦解之后，暴力起义随着而来，之后以色列的政治态度很明显变得更为强硬。理论上来说，所有以色列主流政党都支持“两国解决方案”，而实际上，在约旦河西岸日益增加的现代正统派定居者带头体现了政府无止尽占领的政策。为了能够让该政策得以继续下去，并得到合理化，一种坚定的民族主义思潮正在不断发展中。在缺乏任何和平进展的背景下，这种发展也许是不可避免的。而这种思潮开始逐渐赢得犹太侨民的心也许同样是一种不可避免的趋势。
Our kind of peace
我们定义的和平
Doubtless most members of a non-Orthodox synagogue in suburban Connecticut, like most Israelis and diaspora Jews, would tell pollsters that they support peace and two states. The atmosphere there on a recent Sunday could hardly have been more civilised. Jews, Christians and Muslims munched hot dogs and coleslaw together before setting out to clean up the neighbourhood park. The rabbi spoke words of appropriate interfaith inspiration. In the library the synagogue staff had spread carpets on the floor for the Muslims to pray.
如果民意调查问问在美国康涅狄格州市郊教区的非正统犹太教徒，毫无疑问他们的回答会和大多数以色列人及犹太侨民一样——他们支持和平，支持巴以两国解决方案。在最近的一个星期日，当地完全是一片和气。犹太教徒、基督教徒和伊斯兰教徒在一起啃着热狗和生菜沙拉，然后一起出发前去打扫社区公园。拉比讲述着适当的跨宗教鼓励言语。在图书馆内当地犹太教堂的工作人员在地上铺上毯子，以供伊斯兰教徒祈祷。
In the corridor outside this temporary mosque, two Muslim schoolboys read the Israeli declaration of independence: “We extend our hand of peace and unity to all the neighbouring states and their peoples.” It was displayed alongside a map of the region. “No Gaza,” one noted. “No West Bank either,” his brother added. A synagogue warden explained later that the map was “biblical, not political”.
在这间临时的祈祷间外面的走廊里，两名穆斯林男生在读以色列独立宣言：“我们向所有的邻国和其人民伸出和平于团结之手。”这份宣言被挂在一副巴以地区的地图旁边。其中一名男生注意到了：“地图上没有加沙。”他的弟弟补充说：“也没有约旦河西岸地区。”犹太教堂的一位管理员后来解释道这是一幅“圣经地图，不是政治地图”。
The prevailing political sentiment in Jewry today is of aggressive defensiveness, a curious amalgam of victimhood and intolerance. Dissent about Israel is discouraged and often gagged outright. Among British Jewry, some 300,000 strong, “a positively McCarthyite atmosphere has been created,” says Jonathan Freedland, a political columnist. “People are frightened to say what they feel.” In America “honest discussion about Israel is largely shut down,” notes Arnold Eisen, a historian and chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary, a rabbinical school in New York. “Some rabbis will speak their minds…but people don’t want to fight and there is a disinclination to argue about Israel. The right says you’re giving aid and comfort to the enemy if you say anything critical about any Israeli policy.” Given Israel’s power and diaspora Jewry’s strength and influence, that seems paradoxical.
今天在犹太社区内占主导位置的政治心态是一种好斗的自卫心态，这是一种被迫害心态和偏见的奇怪混合物。这种氛围不鼓励犹太人对以色列表示异见，很多时候这类异见甚至会受到直接限制。根据政治专栏作家乔纳森·弗里德兰德（Jonathan Freedland），在人口30多万的英国犹太人中“现在的氛围简直就带有麦卡锡时代[注12]的味道”。阿诺德·埃森（Arnold Eisen）是一位历史学家，也是纽约的拉比学院——犹太神学院的校长，他发现在美国“关于以色列的诚恳对话几乎已被全面遏制。”他说：“有的拉比还是会把自己的想法说出来……但人们不想要和这种氛围斗争，大家都有倾向不就以色列问题争执。右翼分子说你批评以色列任何政策都是在帮助或是安慰以色列的敌人。”考虑到以色列本身的国力，以及犹太人侨民的强大和其对以色列的影响力之大，这样的态度似乎非常自相矛盾。
Resurgent religious faith is deeply caught up in this. Nationalism, xenophobia and Judaism blur and merge. Jews find themselves out of step with most of world opinion, which heightens a widespread sense of apprehensiveness. Iran’s threats and nuclear pretensions provide a focus for these feelings. Diaspora Jewish leaders insist that Israel is misunderstood. They attribute criticism to anti-Semitism, which is rising again.
重新崛起的宗教信仰被深深地牵涉入这种态度里。民族主义、排外主义和犹太教混合在一起，互相交融。犹太人发现自己的看法和世界大多数人的看法有所抵触。这样一来广泛存在的畏惧感进一步得到加强。伊朗的威胁和其核叫嚣给这样的心态提供了聚焦点。犹太侨民领导人坚称以色列被人误解。他们把各方的批评归咎于正在抬头的反犹太主义。
Arthur Green, a scholar of Jewish mysticism and a professor at a rabbinical school in Boston, blames Israel’s policy and American Jewry’s blanket support for it “for the fact that lots and lots of thinking Jews are walking away. And then we say, well, they’re not committed Jews anyway, so who cares about them?”
犹太神秘主义学者兼波士顿一间拉比学院的教授亚瑟·格林（Arthur Green）提到“越来越多有独立思考力的犹太人开始离开犹太文化，而我们却在说，管他呢，这些人本来就不是虔诚的犹太教徒，谁关心他们啊？”他把这一切归咎于以色列的政策以及美国对以色列政策的无条件支持。
The accusation that Israeli hawkishness turns young diaspora Jews off their Judaism and their Jewishness has been trenchantly advanced by Peter Beinart, a journalist in Washington, DC. It has caused huge controversy among American Jewry. But many other experts deny the causal link. Jews, especially younger ones, have been dropping out in large numbers for years, Mr Eisen points out. As their attachment to Judaism weakens, so does their commitment to Israel. Those who criticise Israel and incur the community’s wrath care at least as much as those who try to silence them. “Love has a voice,” he insists.
华盛顿特区记者彼得·贝纳特（Peter Beinart）进一步猛烈抨击了以色列的好战态度，指责其疏远了年轻的犹太侨民，使他们离开犹太教和犹太文化。这一评论在美国犹太人中引起了巨大的争议。不过很多其他专家否定了两者之间存在因果关系。埃森指出：犹太人，特别是较年轻的犹太人大批离开犹太文化已经有好几年的历史了。随着人们和犹太教的关联减弱，他们对以色列的关注也会减少。那些批评以色列并引来犹太社区怒火的人至少对这一问题的关心程度不亚于那些试图让他们住口的人。埃森坚持认为：“大爱有声”。
译者注：
1 － David Landau：本文作者，伦敦出生的以色列记者兼编辑，曾担任以色列主要报纸《国土报》主编，现为《经济学人》以色列记者
2 － Sukhot：住棚节，犹太人三大庆典之一，每年十月左右举行，为期一周。犹太人要搭起草棚，在棚内饮食欢庆，很多人也在里面休息。这是为了纪念圣经中犹太人出埃及之后40年漂泊中的艰辛。
3 － Rabbi：拉比，或称犹太牧师。教授犹太圣典《摩西五经》（Torah）的老师。本为专门的神学老师，19世纪开始受基督教牧师影响性质有一定变化，也开始进行传教礼拜等活动。不同教派需要资格不同。
4 － Passover：逾越节，犹太人三大庆典中流传最广的一个。每年三四月左右举行，为期约一周。纪念圣经中上帝帮以色列人逃离埃及人奴役在埃及降下各种天灾，最后也是最惨的一项灾难让埃及每家长子身亡。以色列人被告知在门前涂上羊血，上帝就会跨过这家不施以神罚，称为“逾越”。该节日一项重要活动就是称为seder的团圆宴。
5 － Bar-mitzva：男孩成人礼，女孩成人礼称为Bat-mitzva，犹太传统，男孩13岁，女孩12岁进行该礼仪。礼后被视为成人，要对自己行为负责，也可以开始参加某些宗教活动。
6 － Zionism：犹太复国主义，又称锡安主义，反对犹太人被所在国文化同化，支持犹太人坚守自己的文化。其核心思想（但并非全部思想）为建立独立的犹太国保存犹太文化，即以色列。
7 － Final solution：纳粹德国在二战中系统对欧洲犹太人进行种族屠杀的计划别称。据说来自希特勒说的：“解决犹太人问题的最终方法。”
8 － Sephardi：塞法迪犹太人，1492年西班牙女皇伊萨贝拉宣布将犹太人逐出西班牙王国之前在伊伯利亚半岛（今西班牙和葡萄牙）居住的犹太人。词语本身其实就是“西班牙”的意思。驱逐后很多定居在南欧、南美、北非和中东地带（包括中东的Levant地区，即今天的以色列、叙利亚、约旦等地）。
9 － Talmud：《犹太法典》，又称《塔木德》，为犹太教仅次于《摩西五经》的中心典籍，主要讨论犹太法律、伦理和哲学等方面，是一本最初口头相传的典籍。犹太教中心经文《摩西五经》（Torah）相当于基督教圣经的旧约全书，两者有一定区别，Torah也可被称为圣经。
10 － Six-day war：1967年第三次中东战争的别称，持续6日，在以色列和中东诸国之间展开。以色列大获全胜，从埃及夺下西奈半岛和加沙地带，从约旦夺下约旦河西岸地区和东耶路撒冷，从叙利亚夺下戈兰高地。
11 － Post-modernism：20世纪兴起的一种思想，涵盖文学、艺术、经济学、哲学、建筑学等领域，其定义非常模糊，有时甚至自相矛盾。大致来说，很多领域的后现代主义带有打破现代理论和权威的框架的意味，在艺术领域也带有以新的方式回归到古典风格的意味。
12 － McCarthyism：麦卡锡主义，指20世纪50年代美国参议员麦卡锡掀起的反共产党肃清风潮，期间在文艺界和政府部门煽动人们互相揭发，许多著名人士受到迫害和怀疑。
表译：主要犹太教派
A － 超正统派（哈勒丁），B － 现代正统派，C － 保守派，D － 改革派
《摩西五经》[注9]的来源：A、B认为来自摩西记录的上帝之词；C、D认为是受上帝启发，但是可由人类解读。
教法的权威性：A认为所有教法是来自上帝，不可更改；B同A，但在解读上更灵活；C认为教法是有约束性的，但同时在拉比的讨论中不断改进；D认为除了在伦理层面上，教法不具有约束性。
仪式习俗：A认为是受所有教法规定，不可更改，只有仪式的重心可能变化；B同A，但有些学者正在呼吁改变某些习俗，特别是和女性相关的习俗；C认可的教法经过显著现代化，女性和同性恋者可担任拉比，宗教仪式不得歧视个人；D早期有激进想法，近来开始回归一些传统仪式风俗。
犹太复国主义和以色列：A一开始反对复国主义，但现在大多接受以色列。大批教徒移居以色列；B将复国主义视为神赋予的使命，视以色列为犹太教重要组成部分。很多教徒移居至以色列。C支持复国主义和以色列，移民数量不大。D最早反对复国主义，20世纪中期思想转变，移民数量不大。
什么人算是犹太人：A认为母亲是犹太人可算，或者接受浸礼、割礼，并接受教规而皈依犹太教；B同A，但接受教规这一点的解读更为自由；C同A，但接受教规这一点的解读非常自由；D认为母亲或父亲为犹太人可算，对于皈依者，有些拉比要求进行浸礼和割礼，但一般不要求接受教规。 |
|
发表于 2012-7-31 13:01:03
发表于 2012-7-31 15:53:49